UPSC PRELIMS 2025 · SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
Complete S&T NotesLatest Trends & PYQ Analysis
ISRO Missions · AI & Quantum · Defence Tech · Biotech · Nuclear · Nanotechnology · 30 High-Priority Topics
10 Modules
30 Priority Topics
15–20 Qs in Prelims
2025 Updated
Chandrayaan-3 Covered
scroll to begin
S&T Trend Analysis (2019–2025)
S&T has 15–20 questions per year · increasingly application-based
2019
15–17 QuestionsSpace missions, biotech, basic science
2020
16–18 QuestionsCOVID-19 tech, vaccines, defence
2021
17–19 QuestionsmRNA vaccines, ISRO, AI applications
2022
17–20 QuestionsQuantum computing, 5G, gene editing
2023
18–22 QuestionsChandrayaan-3, Aditya-L1, AI Act
2024–25
20–25 QuestionsGaganyaan, NISAR, Quantum Mission, GenAI
TREND ALERTUPSC has shifted from factual recall to concept-application questions. "What does CRISPR do?" is out. "What ethical challenges does CRISPR gene editing raise?" is in. Always learn the "so what" behind every technology.
Module 1 — Space Technology
ISRO · Chandrayaan · Gaganyaan · Aditya-L1 · NISAR · International Missions
🎯 ISRO Key Missions — High Priority for 2025
LUNAR MISSION
Chandrayaan-3
Launch: July 14, 2023 · Landing: Aug 23, 2023 · South Pole of Moon · Pragyan rover deployed · India became 4th nation to land on Moon · 1st to land near lunar south pole
✓ SUCCESSSOLAR MISSION
Aditya-L1
Launch: Sep 2, 2023 · Reached L1 point Jan 2024 · Studies solar corona, solar wind, CMEs · First Indian solar mission · L1 = 1.5 million km from Earth
✓ OPERATIONALHUMAN SPACEFLIGHT
Gaganyaan
India's first crewed spaceflight · TV-D1 abort test Oct 2023 ✓ · 3 Vyomanauts selected · Target: 400 km LEO · 3-day mission · Uncrewed G1 mission next
↻ IN PROGRESSEARTH OBSERVATION
NISAR
NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar · Dual-frequency L & S-band SAR · Monitors ice sheets, earthquakes, volcanoes, biomass · Joint US-India mission
◯ UPCOMINGREUSABLE VEHICLE
RLV-TD Pushpak
Reusable Launch Vehicle · "India's Space Shuttle" · Successfully landed autonomously 2024 · Will drastically reduce satellite launch costs when operational
↻ TESTINGSMALL SATELLITE
SSLV
Small Satellite Launch Vehicle · 500 kg to LEO · Quick assembly in days · Reduces cost for startup/commercial launches · 2nd successful flight 2023
✓ OPERATIONALVENUS MISSION
Shukrayaan-1
India's proposed Venus orbiter · Studies Venusian atmosphere, surface, geology · SAR to map surface under cloud cover · Target: 2028 launch window
◯ PLANNEDSPACE STATION
Bharatiya Antariksha Station
India's own space station · Target: 2035 · 20-tonne modular design · Supports Gaganyaan follow-up missions · Announced by PM Modi 2024
◯ 2035 TARGETPRIVATE LAUNCH
Agnikul Cosmos / Skyroot
Agnikul: Agnibaan SOrTeD (2024) — world's first single-piece 3D-printed rocket engine · Skyroot: Vikram-S (2022) — India's first private rocket to reach space
✓ MILESTONEKey Space Terms & Concepts
| Term | Definition | UPSC Relevance |
|---|---|---|
| L1 Lagrange Point | Between Sun and Earth, ~1.5 million km from Earth. Ideal for solar observation. Aditya-L1 is here. | ★★★ Very High |
| L2 Lagrange Point | Opposite side from Sun, ~1.5 million km. Ideal for space telescopes. James Webb Space Telescope is here. | ★★ High |
| GEO / GSO | Geostationary orbit at 35,786 km. Satellite appears stationary. Used for communication and weather satellites. | ★★ High |
| LEO | Low Earth Orbit (160–2000 km). ISS, Gaganyaan, remote sensing satellites operate here. | ★★ High |
| SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) | Radar imaging that works through clouds, day and night. NISAR uses dual-frequency SAR. Key for disaster monitoring. | ★★ High |
| PSLV vs GSLV vs LVM3 | PSLV: workhorse 4-stage rocket. GSLV: cryogenic upper stage for heavier payloads. LVM3/GSLV Mk-III: heaviest lift rocket. | ★★★ Very High |
| Solar CME | Coronal Mass Ejection — massive plasma expulsion from Sun. Can disrupt satellites, power grids, communications on Earth. | ★ Medium |
International Space Missions in News
| Mission | Agency | Status / Achievement |
|---|---|---|
| Artemis Program | NASA | Return humans to Moon by 2026 · Artemis I uncrewed (2022) ✓ · Artemis II crewed flyby planned |
| James Webb Space Telescope | NASA/ESA/CSA | Launched Dec 2021 · L2 orbit · Infrared · Images from 13.7 billion years ago |
| Luna-25 | Roscosmos (Russia) | Crashed on Moon Aug 2023 · Chandrayaan-3 succeeded where Luna-25 failed |
| SLIM (Smart Lander) | JAXA (Japan) | Landed Moon Jan 2024 — Japan 5th nation to land on Moon · High-precision landing technology |
| Chang'e-6 | CNSA (China) | 2024 · First-ever samples from Moon's far side · Significant scientific achievement |
| Euclid Space Telescope | ESA | Launched 2023 · Maps dark matter and dark energy · L2 orbit |
Space Policy & Commercial Space — India
- IN-SPACe — Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre · Regulates private sector space activities
- NewSpace India Ltd (NSIL) — Commercial arm of ISRO for manufacturing and marketing space products
- Space Policy 2023 — India opened space sector to 100% FDI · Private companies can build rockets, satellites and ground stations
- OneWeb (Eutelsat) — ISRO LVM3 commercially launched OneWeb LEO satellites — major commercial milestone for India
Module 2 — Defence Technology
Missiles · Hypersonic · Drones · Make in India Defence · Nuclear Triad
India's Missile Systems — Complete Reference
| Missile | Type | Range | Key Feature |
|---|---|---|---|
| Agni-V | ICBM (Ballistic) | 5,000–8,000 km | MIRV capable — Multiple Independent Reentry Vehicles — can carry multiple warheads |
| Agni-IV | IRBM | 3,500–4,000 km | Road-mobile · ring-laser gyroscope navigation system |
| BrahMos | Supersonic Cruise | 290–800 km | India-Russia joint venture · Mach 2.8 · Air/Sea/Land launched · Exported to Philippines |
| Pralay | Quasi-Ballistic | 150–500 km | First indigenous quasi-ballistic surface-to-surface missile |
| Astra | Air-to-Air (BVR) | 70–110 km | Beyond Visual Range · IAF primary BVR missile · Indigenously developed |
| Nag / HELINA | Anti-Tank Guided | 7–20 km | Nag (ground-launched), HELINA (helicopter-launched) · Imaging IR seeker |
| Akash | Surface-to-Air | 25 km | Point and area defence · Akash-NG (70 km range) under development |
| MRSAM / Barak-8 | Surface-to-Air | 100 km | India-Israel joint venture · Navy and Air Force variants |
| HSTDV (Hypersonic) | Hypersonic | TBD | Scramjet-powered · Mach 6+ · DRDO demonstrated 2020 and 2023 |
Make in India Defence — Key Platforms
FIGHTER AIRCRAFT
Tejas (LCA)
Light Combat Aircraft · Supersonic, fly-by-wire · 83 Tejas Mk1A ordered · Tejas Mk2 under development · HAL manufactured · GE-414 engine · Indigenous KAVERI engine ongoing
↻ OPERATIONAL + ORDERSHELICOPTER
Prachand (LCH)
Light Combat Helicopter · World's only attack helicopter designed for high-altitude (Siachen, Ladakh) · Operates at 5,000+ metres · Inducted into IAF and Army 2022
✓ INDUCTEDSUBMARINE (SSBN)
INS Arihant Class
Nuclear-Powered Ballistic Missile Submarine · Completes India's Nuclear Triad · K-15 (750 km) and K-4 (3500 km) SLBMs · Makes nuclear deterrent truly credible
↻ OPERATIONALAIR DEFENCE
Project Kusha (LRSAM)
Long Range SAM system — India's S-400 equivalent · Range 150–350 km · Counter ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, fighter jets · DRDO-led development
◯ DEVELOPMENTUPSC TRAP — NUCLEAR TRIADIndia's Nuclear Triad is completed by the SSBN submarine, NOT by any missile alone. Know: Land (Agni series) + Air (aircraft delivery) + Sea (INS Arihant/K-series SLBMs). The Arihant class completes this triad. UPSC asks this in statement-based questions.
Module 3 — Biotechnology
CRISPR · Gene Editing · GMO · Stem Cells · Bioinformatics · Genome India
Gene Editing Technologies — Very High Trend
| Technology | Mechanism | Applications | UPSC Angle |
|---|---|---|---|
| CRISPR-Cas9 | Guide RNA targets specific DNA sequence · Cas9 cuts DNA · Edit/delete/insert genes with precision | Disease treatment, crop improvement, drug discovery | Nobel Prize 2020 (Charpentier & Doudna) · Ethical concerns · Germline editing ban |
| Base Editing | Changes single DNA letter without cutting both strands · More precise than standard CRISPR | Sickle cell disease, inherited disorders | More precise, fewer off-target effects |
| Prime Editing | "Search and replace" for DNA · Most versatile editing tool · Minimal off-target effects | Genetic diseases without double-strand breaks | Called "genetic word processor" |
| Gene Therapy | Delivery of corrective genes using viral vectors (AAV) or nanoparticles | Haemophilia, blindness, muscle diseases | India's gene therapy regulations · CDSCO oversight |
| Pharmacogenomics | How individual genes affect drug response · Personalized medicine based on genomic profile | Cancer treatment, drug dosing, adverse effect prevention | Precision medicine · India's genomics push |
ETHICAL ISSUES — HIGH UPSC TRENDUPSC frequently asks about: Designer babies, germline editing (heritable changes), bioweapons misuse, patenting of life forms, equity of access. Know the He Jiankui case (2018 — first CRISPR babies in China) — sparked global debate. The key ethical divide: somatic editing (acceptable) vs germline editing (controversial).
GMO Crops — India Focus
| GMO Crop | Status in India | Key Feature |
|---|---|---|
| Bt Cotton | APPROVED (2002) | Only approved GM crop in India · Bacillus thuringiensis toxin inserted · Resistant to bollworm · 95%+ cotton area now Bt |
| Bt Brinjal | MORATORIUM (2010) | Insect resistance · Supreme Court involved · Ongoing regulatory and legal debate |
| GM Mustard (DMH-11) | GEAC APPROVED (2022) | Herbicide-tolerant · Higher yield · First approved GM food crop in India · Legal challenges ongoing |
| Golden Rice | NOT APPROVED | Produces Vitamin A (beta-carotene) · Addresses Vitamin A deficiency · Approved in Philippines, Bangladesh |
REGULATORY BODYGEAC (Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee) under MoEFCC (not Health Ministry) regulates GMO approvals in India. This body confusion is a common UPSC trap. GEAC = MoEFCC, not DBT or ICMR.
Emerging Biotech — India's Key Initiatives
- Genome India Project — Sequence 10,000 Indian genomes from diverse ethnic groups · Understanding India-specific genetic diseases and predispositions
- BioE3 Policy 2024 — Biotechnology for Economy, Environment and Employment · India's first comprehensive bioeconomy policy
- National Gene Bank (NBPGR) — Stores seeds of 4,50,000+ plant varieties · Largest gene bank in Asia · Located in New Delhi
- Synthetic Biology — Engineering living organisms to produce chemicals, biofuels, medicines · Raises biosafety and dual-use concerns
- Bioinformatics — Using computers and AI to analyse biological data · Bengaluru is India's bioinformatics hub
Module 4 — Health Technology & Diseases in News
Vaccines · mRNA · Diseases in News · AMR · Digital Health
Vaccine Technologies — Most Important
| Vaccine Type | Mechanism | Examples | UPSC Note |
|---|---|---|---|
| mRNA Vaccine | mRNA instructs cells to produce spike protein · Immune system learns to fight it · No live virus used | Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna (COVID-19) | Nobel Prize 2023 (Karikó and Weissman) · Rapid development platform |
| Viral Vector Vaccine | Modified harmless virus (vector) delivers DNA instructions to cells | AstraZeneca/Covishield (COVID-19) | Covishield used Oxford-AstraZeneca technology licensed to Serum Institute |
| Inactivated Vaccine | Killed pathogen injected · Immune system responds to antigens | Covaxin (BBV152), Polio (IPV), Flu vaccine | Covaxin — India's own, by Bharat Biotech and ICMR collaboration |
| Subunit Vaccine | Only specific protein of pathogen used, not whole organism | Hepatitis B, HPV (Gardasil), Covovax | Covovax = Novavax technology licensed to Serum Institute of India |
| DNA Vaccine | DNA encoding antigen injected · Body produces protein · Immune response triggered | ZyCoV-D (COVID-19, India) | World's first needle-free DNA vaccine for humans · Zydus Cadila · India made history |
| Live Attenuated | Weakened live pathogen gives strong, long-lasting immunity | Measles-MMR, BCG (TB), Polio OPV | Cannot be given to immunocompromised patients — UPSC trap question |
Diseases in News — Quick Reference
| Disease | Pathogen | Key Facts for UPSC |
|---|---|---|
| MPOX (Monkeypox) | Monkeypox virus (Orthopoxvirus) | WHO declared PHEIC again 2024 · Clade Ib variant emerged in DRC · Spreads through close contact · Zoonotic origin |
| Nipah Virus | Nipah henipavirus | Fruit bats are reservoir · Kerala outbreaks (2018, 2021, 2023) · High mortality rate · No approved vaccine yet |
| HMPV | Human Metapneumovirus (RNA virus) | China respiratory outbreak 2024-25 · Known since 2001 — not a new virus · Seasonal respiratory illness |
| Lumpy Skin Disease | Capripoxvirus | Affects cattle only · Major outbreak India 2022 · Spreads via insects and direct contact · NOT zoonotic |
| Antimicrobial Resistance | Multiple bacteria/fungi | 10 million deaths/year projected by 2050 · WHO Global Action Plan · India's NAP-AMR 2017 · "Silent pandemic" |
| Tuberculosis | Mycobacterium tuberculosis | India = 26% of global TB burden · Target: TB-free India by 2025 · Nikshay Poshan Yojana · MDR-TB crisis ongoing |
Digital Health Initiatives
- Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission (ABDM) — Unique Health ID (ABHA) for every Indian · Digital health records · API-based health data ecosystem
- eSanjeevani — India's national telemedicine platform · 10+ crore teleconsultations delivered · Connects rural patients to urban specialists
- AI in Diagnostics — AI detects cancer, diabetic retinopathy, TB from X-rays with high accuracy · AIIMS and major hospitals deploying
- 3D Bioprinting — Printing living tissues and organs using bio-inks (living cells) · Could solve organ transplant shortage crisis
Module 5 — Artificial Intelligence & IT
AI · Quantum Computing · 5G/6G · Semiconductors · Cybersecurity · Data Protection
AI Key Concepts — UPSC Essentials
Machine Learning
Computers learn from data without explicit programming. Algorithms improve with experience and data.
Spam filters, recommendation systems, fraud detection
Deep Learning
Subset of ML using neural networks with many layers. Excels at image, speech and language tasks.
Powers ChatGPT, image recognition, self-driving perception
Generative AI (GenAI)
AI that creates new content: text, images, audio, video, code. Based on Large Language Models (LLMs).
ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, DALL-E, Sora, Midjourney
Large Language Model
AI model trained on massive text data. Understands and generates human language. Foundation of GenAI.
GPT-4, Gemini, Llama, India's Krutrim (Ola), BharatGPT
Explainable AI (XAI)
AI whose decisions can be understood and explained by humans. Counters the "black box" problem.
Critical for AI in healthcare, judiciary, credit scoring
Deepfakes
AI-generated synthetic media showing people saying or doing things they never did. Growing threat.
Election disinformation · India's IT Rules 2023 address this
Computer Vision
AI that can interpret and understand visual information from images and video like a human does.
Facial recognition, medical imaging AI, self-driving cars
AI Ethics & Bias
AI systems can perpetuate and amplify biases in training data. Fairness, accountability, transparency required.
Biased hiring tools, discriminatory credit scoring, facial recognition errors
INDIA'S AI INITIATIVESIndiaAI Mission (2024) — Rs 10,372 crore · 10,000 GPU compute infrastructure · BharatGen (indigenous multimodal LLM) · Responsible AI framework · AI in governance (NIC) · NITI Aayog's National Strategy for AI (2018, updated 2021)
Quantum Computing — Increasingly Tested
| Concept | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Qubit | Quantum bit — unlike classical bits (0 or 1), a qubit can be in superposition (0 AND 1 simultaneously), enabling exponential computing power |
| Superposition | A qubit exists in multiple states simultaneously until measured. Enables quantum computers to explore many solutions at once. |
| Quantum Entanglement | Two qubits linked regardless of distance — measuring one instantly affects the other. Used in quantum communication and cryptography. |
| Quantum Supremacy | When a quantum computer solves a problem no classical computer can solve in reasonable time. Google claimed this in 2019. |
| Post-Quantum Cryptography | New encryption methods that resist quantum computer attacks on current RSA/AES encryption. NIST standardized first algorithms in 2024. |
| National Quantum Mission (India) | Rs 6,003 crore · 2023–2031 · Goal: 50–1000 qubit quantum computers · Quantum communication, sensing and metrology |
Cybersecurity & Digital Governance
| Policy / Body | Key Details |
|---|---|
| DPDP Act 2023 | Digital Personal Data Protection Act · India's first comprehensive data privacy law · Data principal rights · Rs 250 crore max penalty · DPDPB (Data Protection Board) to be established |
| CERT-In | Computer Emergency Response Team India · Reports to MeitY · Mandatory 6-hour cyber incident reporting rule (2022) · Manages national cyber incidents |
| IT (Amendment) Rules 2023 | Deepfake provisions, online gaming regulation, fact-checking unit (stayed by court), intermediary liability due diligence |
| Telecom Act 2023 | Replaced 140-year-old Indian Telegraph Act 1885 · Spectrum as national resource · New licensing framework · Biometric SIM verification |
| Semiconductor Mission | India Semiconductor Mission 2021 · Rs 76,000 crore package · Tata Electronics fab in Gujarat (TSMC partnership) · Micron chip assembly plant in Gujarat |
Module 6 — Nuclear Technology
India's 3-Stage Programme · Nuclear Reactors · Treaties · Fusion Energy
India's 3-Stage Nuclear Programme — Perennial UPSC Favourite
1
Stage 1 — Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs)Fuel: Natural uranium (U-238 + U-235) · Moderator and coolant: Heavy water (D₂O) · By-product: Plutonium-239 (Pu-239) · Current workhorse of India's nuclear power. Examples: TAPS, RAPS, MAPS, NAPS, Rajasthan Atomic Power Station
2
Stage 2 — Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs)Fuel: Pu-239 from Stage 1 · "Breeds" more fuel than consumed by converting U-238 to Pu-239 · Also converts Th-232 to U-233 · PFBR at Kalpakkam commissioned 2024 — India's critical Stage 2 milestone
3
Stage 3 — Thorium-Based ReactorsUse U-233 from Stage 2 to power Thorium (Th-232) reactors · India's endgame — world's largest thorium reserves (~25% global) · Achieves long-term energy independence · Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) design underway at BARC
WHY THORIUM MATTERS TO INDIAIndia has vast thorium reserves in Kerala (monazite sands) and Rajasthan but limited uranium. The 3-stage programme exploits thorium to achieve energy independence. Key UPSC point: Thorium cannot directly power reactors — it must first be converted to U-233 via Stage 2. This indirect route is the core logic tested by UPSC.
Nuclear Reactors — Types Comparison
| Reactor Type | Fuel | Moderator | Coolant | Examples in India |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| PHWR | Natural Uranium | Heavy Water (D₂O) | Heavy Water | RAPS (Rajasthan), MAPS (Tamil Nadu), NAPS (Uttar Pradesh) |
| BWR | Enriched Uranium | Light Water | Light Water (boils in reactor) | Tarapur TAPS 1 and 2 — oldest reactors in India |
| PWR (VVER) | Enriched Uranium | Light Water | Pressurized Light Water | Kudankulam — Russian VVER design — 2 units operational |
| FBR | Plutonium (MOX) | None (no moderator) | Liquid Sodium | PFBR — Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu (Stage 2) |
| SMR | Various | Various | Various | Global trend — under 300 MWe · Bharat SMR (BSMR) planned by NPCIL |
Nuclear Treaties — India's Position
| Treaty | Year | India's Status | Reason |
|---|---|---|---|
| NPT (Non-Proliferation Treaty) | 1968 | NOT SIGNED | Considers it discriminatory — recognizes only 5 Nuclear Weapon States (P5) |
| CTBT (Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty) | 1996 | NOT SIGNED | India maintains voluntary moratorium on testing since Pokhran-II (1998) |
| PTBT (Partial Test Ban Treaty) | 1963 | SIGNED ✓ | Bans nuclear tests in atmosphere, underwater and in space (not underground) |
| TPNW (Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons) | 2017 | NOT SIGNED | Abstained · All 5 UNSC permanent members oppose this treaty |
| India-US 123 Agreement | 2008 | SIGNED ✓ | Landmark civil nuclear deal — India gains nuclear access despite not signing NPT |
| CWC (Chemical Weapons Convention) | 1993 | SIGNED ✓ | India is a member · OPCW monitors compliance |
| BWC (Biological Weapons Convention) | 1972 | SIGNED ✓ | India is a member · Prohibits biological weapons development and stockpiling |
CRITICAL UPSC TRAPIndia has NOT signed NPT, CTBT, or TPNW. India HAS signed PTBT (1963), CWC, BWC and the India-US 123 Agreement. This distinction is one of the most frequently tested nuclear topics in UPSC Prelims. Memorize both lists.
Module 7 — Nanotechnology & Materials Science
Nanomaterials · Carbon Allotropes · Graphene · Quantum Dots · Advanced Materials
Nanotechnology — Key Concepts
Nanotechnology
Science and engineering at the nanoscale (1–100 nm). 1 nm = 10⁻² metres. A human hair is 80,000 nm wide.
Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
Cylindrical carbon structures. 100x stronger than steel. Excellent electrical conductors.
Composites, electronics, drug delivery, sensors, filtration membranes
Graphene
Single layer of carbon atoms. Thinnest and strongest material known. Exceptional electrical conductor.
Nobel 2010 (Geim and Novoselov) · Batteries, electronics, defence armour
Quantum Dots
Semiconductor nanocrystals emitting light at wavelengths tunable by size. Unique quantum optical properties.
Nobel 2023 (Bawendi, Brus, Ekimov) · QLED TVs, solar cells, bioimaging
Nanomedicine
Nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery directly to disease site, minimizing systemic side effects.
mRNA vaccines use lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) as delivery vehicles to cells
Nano-sensors
Ultra-sensitive sensors detecting very small amounts of biological or chemical substances.
Early disease detection, environmental pollution monitoring, food safety testing
Carbon Allotropes — UPSC Favourite Comparison
| Allotrope | Structure | Properties | Applications |
|---|---|---|---|
| Diamond | 3D tetrahedral lattice · sp3 hybridization | Hardest natural material · Electrical insulator · Transparent | Cutting tools, abrasives, jewellery, industrial drilling |
| Graphite | Layered hexagonal sheets · sp2 hybridization | Soft and slippery · Good electrical conductor · Excellent lubricant | Pencils, lubricants, batteries (anode), nuclear reactor moderator |
| Graphene | Single graphite layer · sp2 hybridization | Strongest known material · Best conductor · One atom thick | Composites, electronics, energy storage · Nobel Prize 2010 |
| Carbon Nanotubes | Rolled graphene sheets (cylindrical) | 100x stronger than steel · Conductor or semiconductor | Electronics, composites, medicine, water filtration |
| Fullerene (C60) | 60 carbons in soccer ball shape | Cage-like · Can trap atoms inside · Spherical molecule | Drug delivery, superconductors, lubricants · Nobel Prize 1996 |
| Amorphous Carbon | No regular crystalline structure | Non-conductive · Low hardness | Coal, charcoal, soot, carbon black |
Module 8 — S&T Bodies, Organizations & Policies
ISRO · DRDO · DST · CSIR · ICMR · DAE · International Bodies
India's Key S&T Organizations
| Organization | Full Form | Under | Key Function |
|---|---|---|---|
| ISRO | Indian Space Research Organisation | Dept of Space (under PM) | Space technology, launch vehicles, satellites |
| DRDO | Defence Research and Development Organisation | Ministry of Defence | Military technology R&D — missiles, aircraft, electronics |
| DAE | Department of Atomic Energy | Directly under PM | Nuclear energy and research · BARC, NPCIL under it |
| DST | Department of Science and Technology | MoST | Science policy, funding, SERB, national missions |
| DBT | Department of Biotechnology | MoST | Biotech R&D, BIRAC startup funding, vaccine development |
| CSIR | Council of Scientific and Industrial Research | MoST | 38 national laboratories · Applied R&D across sectors |
| ICMR | Indian Council of Medical Research | Ministry of Health | Biomedical research, clinical trials, disease surveillance |
| BARC | Bhabha Atomic Research Centre | DAE | Nuclear research, reactor technology, radiation applications |
| IN-SPACe | Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre | Dept of Space | Regulates private sector space activities in India |
| NSIL | NewSpace India Limited | Dept of Space | Commercial arm of ISRO for space products and services |
International Science Bodies
| Body | Full Form | Focus |
|---|---|---|
| CERN | European Organization for Nuclear Research | Particle physics · Large Hadron Collider · Higgs Boson discovery (2012) |
| ITER | International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor | Nuclear fusion experiment · France · India is member · "Sun on Earth" |
| IAEA | International Atomic Energy Agency | Nuclear safeguards, peaceful use, non-proliferation oversight |
| UNOOSA | UN Office for Outer Space Affairs | Outer Space Treaty, space debris, space law development |
| GPAI | Global Partnership on AI | Responsible AI development · India is a member · AI governance standards |
Key S&T Policies
- STIP 2020 — Science, Technology and Innovation Policy · Decentralised, evidence-informed · Aims for India in top 5 globally in S&T
- National Quantum Mission 2023 — Rs 6,003 crore · 8 years · Quantum computing, communication, sensing, metrology
- IndiaAI Mission 2024 — Rs 10,372 crore · 10,000 GPU compute for startups · Responsible AI framework · Indigenous LLM
- BioE3 Policy 2024 — Biotech for Economy, Environment and Employment · India's first comprehensive bioeconomy policy
- National Supercomputing Mission — 70+ supercomputers in academic and research institutions · PARAM Siddhi, PARAM Brahma deployed
- Deep Tech Startup Policy 2023 — Support for AI, quantum, biotech, robotics startups · IP support, funding, regulatory sandbox
Module 9 — UPSC Question Pattern Analysis
S&T PYQ patterns · Strategies for each type · Common traps in S&T
EXAMPLE"With reference to Aditya-L1 mission: 1. It studies the solar corona. 2. It is located at L2 Lagrange point. 3. It was launched by PSLV." Which are correct?
Strategy: Statement 2 is WRONG (L1, not L2). Statement 3 is CORRECT (PSLV-C57). Statement 1 is CORRECT. These questions test precise mission facts — not general awareness. Know the exact Lagrange point, rocket used, and primary objective of every major ISRO mission.
Strategy: Statement 2 is WRONG (L1, not L2). Statement 3 is CORRECT (PSLV-C57). Statement 1 is CORRECT. These questions test precise mission facts — not general awareness. Know the exact Lagrange point, rocket used, and primary objective of every major ISRO mission.
EXAMPLE"mRNA vaccines differ from conventional vaccines because: 1. They use inactivated virus. 2. They instruct cells to produce antigens. 3. They can be rapidly updated for new variants."
Strategy: Statement 1 is WRONG (that's conventional inactivated vaccine). Statements 2 and 3 are CORRECT. Understand the mechanism, not just the name. Draw a mental flowchart: mRNA enters cell → cell makes spike protein → immune system recognises it → immunity built.
Strategy: Statement 1 is WRONG (that's conventional inactivated vaccine). Statements 2 and 3 are CORRECT. Understand the mechanism, not just the name. Draw a mental flowchart: mRNA enters cell → cell makes spike protein → immune system recognises it → immunity built.
EXAMPLE"Which ethical concerns are raised by human germline editing? 1. Designer babies with selected traits. 2. Heritable changes affecting future generations. 3. Risk of increasing genetic diversity."
Strategy: Statement 3 is WRONG — germline editing would REDUCE genetic diversity by promoting certain traits. Statements 1 and 2 are genuine concerns. Ethics questions have increased significantly from 2021 onwards. Always think about who benefits, who is harmed, and what is irreversible.
Strategy: Statement 3 is WRONG — germline editing would REDUCE genetic diversity by promoting certain traits. Statements 1 and 2 are genuine concerns. Ethics questions have increased significantly from 2021 onwards. Always think about who benefits, who is harmed, and what is irreversible.
EXAMPLE"Which nuclear treaties has India signed? 1. NPT 2. CTBT 3. PTBT 4. TPNW"
Answer: Only PTBT (1963). India has NOT signed NPT, CTBT, or TPNW. Also signed but not listed: BWC and CWC. India also signed the 123 Agreement with the US (2008). This is a perennial UPSC favourite — memorize the full treaty table.
Answer: Only PTBT (1963). India has NOT signed NPT, CTBT, or TPNW. Also signed but not listed: BWC and CWC. India also signed the 123 Agreement with the US (2008). This is a perennial UPSC favourite — memorize the full treaty table.
Top 30 High-Priority Topics — UPSC 2025
Rapid revision list · Most likely to appear in Prelims 2025
1
Chandrayaan-3 — first south pole Moon landing, Vikram lander, Pragyan rover, 4th nation to land on Moon
Module 1
2
Aditya-L1 — solar mission at L1 Lagrange point, VELC payload, solar corona study
Module 1
3
Gaganyaan — TV-D1 abort test, 3 Vyomanauts, 400 km LEO, 3-day mission timeline
Module 1
4
NISAR — NASA-ISRO joint SAR mission, dual-frequency L and S-band, Earth observation
Module 1
5
India Space Policy 2023 — 100% FDI, private sector entry, IN-SPACe regulatory role
Module 1
6
PFBR Kalpakkam — Fast Breeder Reactor commissioned (2024), Stage 2 nuclear milestone
Module 6
7
Agni-V MIRV — Multiple Independent Reentry Vehicles, ICBM range 5,000+ km
Module 2
8
BrahMos — India-Russia supersonic cruise missile, Mach 2.8, exported to Philippines
Module 2
9
India's Nuclear Triad — Land (Agni) + Air + Sea (INS Arihant SSBN) completion
Module 6
10
CRISPR-Cas9 — Nobel 2020, mechanism (guide RNA + Cas9), ethical concerns, germline editing
Module 3
11
mRNA vaccine technology — Nobel 2023 (Karikó and Weissman), LNP delivery system
Module 4
12
ZyCoV-D — world's first approved DNA vaccine, needle-free, India (Zydus Cadila)
Module 4
13
Quantum Dots — Nobel 2023 (Bawendi, Brus, Ekimov), QLED TVs, bioimaging applications
Module 7
14
National Quantum Mission — Rs 6,003 crore, 50–1000 qubit target, 8-year programme (2023–2031)
Module 5
15
IndiaAI Mission 2024 — Rs 10,372 crore, 10,000 GPUs, BharatGen LLM development
Module 5
16
DPDP Act 2023 — India's first data privacy law, data principal rights, Rs 250 crore penalty
Module 5
17
Semiconductor Mission — Tata-TSMC fab in Gujarat, Micron chip assembly plant
Module 5
18
GM Mustard DMH-11 — GEAC approval 2022, first GM food crop approval in India
Module 3
19
Mpox (Monkeypox) — WHO PHEIC 2024, Clade Ib, DRC outbreak, zoonotic origin
Module 4
20
Antimicrobial Resistance — 10 million deaths/year by 2050, India's NAP-AMR, superbug crisis
Module 4
21
India's 3-Stage Nuclear Programme — PHWR to FBR to Thorium, logic and current status
Module 6
22
Nuclear treaties India has and has NOT signed — NPT/CTBT (no) vs PTBT/CWC/BWC (yes)
Module 6
23
Graphene and carbon allotropes — properties comparison, Nobel 2010, structure differences
Module 7
24
ITER fusion project — India's membership, "sun on Earth", thermonuclear fusion concept
Module 6
25
Tejas Mk1A — 83 aircraft order, GE-414 engine, HAL manufactured, fly-by-wire features
Module 2
26
RLV Pushpak — India's reusable launch vehicle, autonomous landing success 2024
Module 1
27
Genome India Project — 10,000 Indian genomes, genetic diversity, disease predisposition
Module 3
28
Hypersonic weapons — HSTDV, Mach 5+, scramjet engine, anti-interception challenge
Module 2
29
Telecom Act 2023 — replaced 1885 Act, spectrum as national resource, biometric SIM verification
Module 5
30
Chang'e-6 (China, 2024) — first-ever samples from Moon's far side — global context
Module 1
Tutor's Golden Tips for S&T
10 strategies to maximise your Science & Technology score in Prelims
01
Always link missions to their objectives. UPSC asks WHY a mission was launched, not just WHAT it is.
02
Know the correct agency for each field. ISRO (space), DRDO (defence), BARC (nuclear), ICMR (health). Wrong agency = wrong answer.
03
Nobel Prizes are heavily tested. Know 2020–2024 winners in Physics, Chemistry and Medicine with their significance.
04
Ethical dimensions of technology are increasingly asked. CRISPR ethics, AI bias, autonomous weapons, deepfakes. Never ignore the ethics angle.
05
For nuclear topics, India's 3-stage programme logic is a perennial favourite. Understand WHY thorium matters to India specifically.
06
India-first achievements are gold. First DNA vaccine (ZyCoV-D), first south pole Moon landing (Chandrayaan-3), first private rocket (Vikram-S). UPSC loves these firsts.
07
Know exact Lagrange point differences. L1 (solar study, Aditya), L2 (space telescopes, JWST). Confusion between L1 and L2 is the most common UPSC S&T trap.
08
For biotech, the GMO regulatory body is GEAC under MoEFCC (not Health Ministry, not DBT). This ministry confusion is tested every few years.
09
India's nuclear treaty status is tested every 2–3 years. Memorize both lists: NPT/CTBT/TPNW (not signed) and PTBT/CWC/BWC/123 Agreement (signed).
10
Understand how each technology works conceptually, not just what it is called. UPSC tests understanding and application, not rote memorization.
RECOMMENDED S&T SOURCESPIB (Press Information Bureau) · ISRO Official Website · DRDO News Releases · The Hindu Science Page · Science Reporter Magazine · Down To Earth · Vigyan Prasar · Economic Survey (S&T chapter) · Sansad TV science programmes